Reflection Essays and Reflection Essay Outlines Writing Tips

Learning how to write a reflection paper and a reflective essay outline is something that you are going to face throughout the entirety of your school career. While writing might not be everyone’s strong suit, with this guide available at your fingertips, you will be confident enough how to write a reflective essay and a reflective essay outline that are certain to satisfy the requirements set forth by your teacher or professor. While you are making your way through grade school or college, it is inevitable that you will at one point be required to write an effective self reflection essay that will grab you that ‘A’ or ‘B’ that you so desperately crave to get through school with the utmost success. If you happen to be in college, the number of essays you are required to produce is increased. One such assignment that you might find yourself facing once or twice throughout grade school and college is the reflection essay. Below we will discuss exactly what comprises a reflection essay and how you can truly get your voice heard. Make an Order Defining the self-reflection essay and learning how to start a reflection paper A reflective essay is exactly what it sounds like—it is a paper that describes live events and experiences that you have endured – good and bad – that have helped shape the person you are today. One of the most important things you need to know when learning about how to write a reflection paper is that the meat of your assignment is going to rely heavily on the personal details that surround the experiences or events that you are discussing. So, specific details are going to be the foundation of your self-reflection essay. While we conquer the journey of constructing a solid self reflection essay and a reflective paper outline, we must remember that it is highly important to take a stance and make our views and beliefs clear in reference to the life experience/s we choose to share when writing a reflection paper. The majority of academic writing has the same structural guidelines, reflective essays included. Below we will go over what a solid reflective essay outline looks like and how to start a reflection paper. The reflective essay outline and how to structure your essay properly If you want to how to write a reflective essay and a complementing reflective essay outline, you can at least take solace in the fact that the structure and reflection essay outline for this paper is fairly straightforward, leaving you with wiggle room to write your assignment at a comfortable speed without a ton of restrictions. This differs of course if your teacher or professor has given you an outline they want you to use. In this situation, you are going to want to follow the instructions given to you by the instructor. However, even if you have guidelines for a reflective essay outline keep reading; there are still some tips and tricks we are going to let you in on that will benefit your reflective writing capabilities in the long-run. So, assuming you are not a student with an assigned outline, there are only a few steps to creating your reflective essay outline, and as it was already mentioned, it is very similar to the outline for many other academic pieces. All you need to do to start a reflective essay is the following: Create a specific, detailed introduction that draws your readers in Fill out most of your reflection essay with a body full of details and information regarding the personal situations you are focusing on A neatly written conclusion For those who are strong in their writing skills, this form of reflective paper outline will more than likely be enough. However, if you are finding it difficult to come up with enough content to complete your paper through an outline, below you will find a much more in-depth form of an outline. These guidelines should successfully shake loose all of those vital details and emotions needed to create an enjoyable piece that others can learn from. 1. A direct and detailed introduction that captivates your readers and makes them want to complete the rest of your paper 2. An effective body of work that will both keep your readers interested and hanging on to reach the conclusion of your self-reflection essay. Some of this content may include: Firsthand experiences or events that you are sharing with your audience Details about these experiences like how they impacted your life in the long-run as well as how it affected others in your life Specific information about how these individual experiences shaped you and what you learned from them 3. A conclusion that restates your main point along with more information about what you took away from going through these situations. Ideally, your conclusion is going to leave a lasting impact on your audience. When you are writing a paper such as this, it is important to remember that the reflective essay outline I shared above is fluid. This means that due to the nature of the paper, reflection paper outline we presented here is not going to limit your creativity, but instead provide a structure for you to insert your ideas, emotions, and experiences in an organized manner. While it is not necessary to construct a reflective essay outline, we can guarantee that it will benefit the end result of your reflective essay. Ultimately, if you follow these guidelines you should be able to create a polished product that will have all of its readers hungry to get through the entire piece. Properly structuring a self-reflection essay Now that you are beginning to wrap your brain around how to write a reflective essay, you should take note that structuring your essay according to your reflection paper outline relies heavily on three sections: The introduction Since this type of essay is very personal and based around your intimate experiences and situations, you need to make sure that your voice is heard, loud and clear, throughout the entirety of the introduction. Your introduction must be both direct and intimate, with a clear purpose and a definite main point. Details such as when and where these events occurred will go far in the way of communicating an experience with which the reader can empathize and delve into the true meaning of it all. If perchance you are writing this article in an informal format, then it is not required of you to be direct about your experiences. In an academic setting, however, you must be direct. Make an Order The body Within the body you must clarify the main point presented in the introduction, detailing the impact your experiences had on you and those around you. While writing the body of your reflective essay, you want to focus on including content that is going to engage your readers. So often this goes overlooked, and readers get lost in disinterest. Specific details surrounding your experience are a must for a solid and gripping body that will make your readers NEED to continue truly hearing your words. This is a good place to be demonstrative of your experiences and what you learned from them. Adding depth to the emotion involved in these events will certainly grab your reader’s attention. The conclusion Basically, anyone who has written a paper understands a conclusion. However, in a reflection essay, you want to make certain that you clearly communicate what you learned from the experiences you hopefully detailed in the previous text. More importantly, however, you want to ensure a conclusion that returns to the main point. You never want to lose the main point of your essay or any body of work for that matter. Ensuring you ‘make the grade’ Since practically all essays carry some level of stress, creating something from your own subjective experiences takes bravery and honesty, and it can be rather personally involved. This important learning experience will ultimately make you more confident in your writing. Sharing such personal events need not be embarrassing; remember, everyone else in your class is doing the same. If you dedicate yourself to the guidelines laid out in front of you, we promise you will receive the grade you seek while possibly learning a bit about yourself.

Analysis of the Poem “The Second Coming” by William Butler Yeats Essays

Analysis of the Poem â€Å"The Second Coming† by William Butler Yeats Essays Analysis of the Poem â€Å"The Second Coming† by William Butler Yeats Paper Analysis of the Poem â€Å"The Second Coming† by William Butler Yeats Paper One of the most resounding names in the discussion of 20th century literature is of the great William Butler Yeats. His works and even his biography are staple study materials for those who endeavor in literature studies. With that being said, it would also be important to study one of his greatest works. One of his best known works, also considered one of his finest, is the poem â€Å"The Second Coming.† Many artists claim that they were influenced by William Butler Yeats and this particular poem has been cited by other works of art. With that taken into consideration, many works of art by other artists can be considered offshoots of Yeats’ poem. It could also be assumed that in a way, this particular poem had somehow influence the art that we are experiencing today. This paper would attempt to present and analyze Yeats’ poem and look into the different aspects why it had become popular among poets and enthusiasts of poetry. Objectives The paper would not delve into a vicious criticism of the work at hand. The main objective would be to present the poem as not merely a poem, but a work of art that needs a deeper view and profound appreciation. Moreover, this particular poem had influenced many other artists. That would only mean that the influence of Yeats’ â€Å"The Second Coming† would be visible in many other works of art. It is an assumption that after an analysis of the poem, we would be able to determine how it had influenced other works of art. In simpler terms, if we would try to understand the poem, we would be granted a better understanding of the poem at hand and of the other works. There is a popular notion in the world of poetry that once an author had explained his or her work, the poem is being stripped of its divine quality. It is just fortunate that the author did not design this poem in an explicit manner.   Another popular notion in the world of art is that explicitness is dangerous to any form of art. And so, setting aside those popular notions, the work at hand belongs to the genre of poetry. Poetry is often coined as the art of misleading, it often leaves the readers scratching their heads. With all of that being said, reading a review before or after tackling a poem would undeniably be of great help to readers. The author Before we traverse further in the discussion, it would be helpful to have a brief overview of the author’s background. The objective of this part follows the logic of an old saying that tells us that the fruit doesn’t fall very far from the tree. The relationship of the fruit and the tree is just the same case for poems and poets. That is because we can understand a work better if we have an idea of the person that had come up with the work. William Butler Yeats is an Irish writer born and educated in the city of Dublin. He was born on the thirteenth of June 1865, and had passed away on the twenty-eighth of January 1939. As stated in the introduction, he would be a great representative of literature during the 20th century. He had endeavored in multiple genres of literature, but the most significant ones would be in drama and poetry. As a testament to his success as a writer, he had been a recipient of the highly-coveted Nobel Prize for literature (Foster 6-27). And of course, there is the worldwide readership and his influence that has spanned generations. nbsp; The poem Since the poem is not that long, it would be better for this paper to include the poem within its contents. The inclusion of the work to be analyzed would enable us to consult the work whenever we need to. Moreover, a review of the work is undeniably essential to any analysis. The Second Coming By William Butler Yeats Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer; Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned; The best lack all conviction, while the worst Are full of passionate intensity nbsp; Surely some revelation is at hand; Surely the Second Coming is at hand. The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out When a vast image out of the Spiritus Mundi Troubles my sight: somewhere in the sands of the desert A shape with lion body and the head of man, A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun Is moving its slow thighs, while all about it Reel shadows of the indignant desert birds. The darkness drops again; but now I know That twenty centuries of stony sleep Were vexed to nightmare by a rocking cradle, And what rough beast, its hour come round at last, Slouches towards Bethlehem to be born? (Yeats 403) Brief background of the poem Yeats’ poem entitled â€Å"The Second Coming† was first printed in the American Magazine â€Å"The Dial† in November of 1920. The first printing was followed by the inclusion of the poem in Yeats’ collection of poems entitled â€Å"Michael Robartes and the Dancer† in 1921. The poem is known to be written during 1919, just after World War I. (Brown 71-72) Definition of terms The word gyre is one of the most noticeable unfamiliar terms in the poem. A gyre basically refers to a spinning vortex. The word is usually used to allude to the movements of oceanic and wind currents. Yeats had already incorporated the term in his book â€Å"A Vision†, which was published in 1925. Another term in poem that is calling attention is â€Å"spiritus mundi.† The term basically translates to the â€Å"spirit of the world.† The concept is in-line with Yeats’ belief that every mind of all individuals is somehow linked to a single vast intelligence (Foster 44) And for us to understand more of nature of some of the lines, we need to consult some works of other writers. The echoing lines in the last part of the first stanza â€Å"the best lack all conviction, while the worst / are full of passionate intensity.† It is said that those lines are in reference to the famous passages of the story Prometheus Unbound by Percy Bysshe Shelley. According to Yeats himself, during his childhood he had read Shelley’s book religiously and it had been an influence ever since (Foster 402) â€Å"The Second Coming† is of course in reference to the prophecy about second coming of Christ. This prophecy could be located in the bible specifically in the books of Matthew and the Revelations. Writing style At first glance, readers could carelessly conclude that the poem is a free-verse. The poem seemingly does not follow any rhyme scheme and meter whatsoever. But after orally reading the poem, that is when readers could easily appreciate the intricate design of the poem. If the poem â€Å"The Second Coming† would be categorized according to a sub-genre of poetry, it would belong to the â€Å"lyrical† style of poetry. As the name suggests, lyric poems is basically a kind of poetry that, just like a song, has musical qualities incorporated within it. And of course, to make a poem lyrical would mean to put rhymes for the poem to make distinct sounds. Although there are some, there are not many rhymes in the poem. In contrast to most classic poems, the number of end-rhymes was only reduced only into two in this particular poem. The few end-rhymes are: â€Å"hold† along with â€Å"world†, and although repetitive â€Å"hand† along with â€Å"hand.† Although there were only a few end-rhymes, the poem was interspersed with internal rhyming. But the internal rhyming that Yeats had done is not as technical as it sounds. He had just repeated some of the words to achieve the effect of internal rhymes. As we could observe in the poem â€Å"turning and turning†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , â€Å"the falcon†¦ the falconer†, â€Å"surely some revelation is at hand† / â€Å"surely the Second Coming is at hand† (Yeats 403) The overall effect to the combination of the handful of internal rhymes and the few petty end-rhymes enables the poem to sound as if there are echoes. This effect is best described by the second line â€Å"the falcon†¦ the falconer.† Brown was able to describe the effect of the poem in a more technical manner. According to him, the lack of form and the emphasis on the repetitions creates an impression to the readers that a poetry that has no form is just enough to describe the concept of â€Å"The Second Coming†- as if it is just a captured dream or a recorded hallucination. (Brown 72) The rhyming is not only the element of poetry that some readers might overlook. Reading the poem only visually would not enable the reader to determine that there is an underlying metric pattern within the poem. This particular metric pattern is known as the iambic pentameter, a metric pattern that is often associated with Shakespeare and other classic poets. The iambic pentameter is basically a metric pattern commonly characterized by a line being made up of five iambic feet. Here is a rough illustration of the iambic pentameter: duh DUM / duh DUM / duh DUM / duh DUM / duh DUM. And now here are the lines of the poem according to the illustration of the iambic pentameter: turn ING / and TURN / ing IN / the WIDE / ning GYRE†¦ surely LY / some RE / ve LA / tion IS / at HAND. Although the iambic pentameter is one of the most fundamental and recognizable metric patterns in poetry, it is just understandable that it would be hard for some to locate it in this particular poem. The poem does not follow an iambic pentameter as its only metric pattern, the first lines of each stanza follow the metric pattern called trochee. A trochee is basically a line that consists of a stressed syllable that is followed by an unstressed syllable. Themes To analyze the poem in a technical aspect like meter and rhyme may take some time and much research. But even at the first reading, one could easily see that the poem is rich in imagery, personification, irony, exaggeration, and of course, symbolisms. Its richness as a text makes the poem a versatile piece for plain poetry enthusiasts and for those who endeavors in rigorous literature studies. Perhaps the success of the poem owes much to the fact that there are many themes that can be unearthed from the poem. It is very likely that the one of the themes that a reader could immediately assume is that the poem takes on religion. There is a considerable count of words that connote the topic of religion. Even the title alone, â€Å"The Second Coming†, already directs us to the discussion of Christ or even Christianity in general. The concept of the â€Å"Second Coming† is considered a prophecy. It was prophesized in the bible, particularly in the books of Matthew and the Revelations, that there would be a second reappearance of Christ.   This prophecy is an integral part of the Christian faith and one of the reasons why Christians follow the teachings of the church.   And just like in the bible, some also consider Yeats poem as prophetic. The form of the poem is like a prophecy of the impending randomness that we are all to experience in gyre called society. On the other hand, it could also be that Yeats is taking the side of religion as â€Å"the falcon†¦Ã¢â‚¬  [Christians] â€Å"†¦cannot hear the falconer† [God]. It could be about the gradual degeneration of the level of faith of people on religion. In the phrase â€Å"the best lack conviction†, the best could be an allusion to Christians.   That is as opposed to phrase â€Å"the worst are full of passionate intensity†, in which the worst could be an allusion to non-Christians. It seems that Yeats had juxtaposed Christians to the other religions. And in his portrayal it seems that the non-Christians are having the upper hand in terms of having a â€Å"passionate intensity† with regards to faith. Moreover, the birthplace of Christ, Bethlehem, is mentioned in the last line of the poem â€Å"slouches towards Bethlehem to be born†? Many see religion as a dominant theme of the poem because Yeats is known for his fascination with the spiritual and the mythological. The words that can be associated with religion are ceremony, revelation, Spiritus Mundi, and Bethlehem. As a support for Yeats’ reputation of having a fascination for the spiritual and the mythological is the inclusion of a sphinx-like creature. This sphinx-like creature could be located in the line â€Å"a shape with lion body and the head of a man.† Yeats seems to have a fondness of mythological creatures such as the sphinx. There are many other works of Yeats that cite the sphinx. It should be taken into consideration that the sphinx is regarded as a religious icon in ancient Egypt. Aside from religion and spiritual themes, themes that take a political and societal tone are also present in the poem. The line â€Å"the falcon cannot hear the falconer† could be roughly interpreted to the subordinate cannot hear the leader.   And if the gyre is considered as a metaphor for the society, it is constantly widening. In relation to the poem, a widening gyre would mean that the spinning would be more turbulent. Yeats may have wanted to say that as time passes, the problem of the degeneration of society is getting more and more out of hand. Yeats had also seemingly stated his view of the society. The line â€Å"things fall apart, the centre cannot hold† could be alluding to the arguably degeneration of the society as it is swaying away from the old ways and adopting new ideas. But perhaps out of all the lines of the poem, the line â€Å"mere anarchy is loosed upon the world†, is the line that gives the poem a political flavor. The inclusion of the word â€Å"anarchy† alone is almost enough to lead readers to the theme of politics. If the reader would read Yeats’ â€Å"The Second Coming† during times of political instability, the reader could even generalize that the poem is basically about revolutions, insurgencies, activists, and the likes. The first line â€Å"turning and turning in the widening gyre† could simply mean that political instability is an ongoing trend in our societies. The second line â€Å"the falconer cannot hear the falconer† refers to the constituents of the tyrannical leadership. The people are refusing to hear the falconer’s [tyrant’s] commands. But Yeats had shown in this particular poem that he could be antirevolutionary. Yeats presents the consequences of a revolution â€Å"things fall apart; the centre cannot hold.† The picture that line paints in our minds is a typical picture of revolutions. That line could trigger images of dilapidated buildings, monuments and homes. That line basically refers to the chaos that revolutions could bring. The chaos that the poem had painted would be followed by the inclusion of the word â€Å"anarchy.† Then it would all be amplified by the line â€Å"the blood-dimed tide is loosed, and everywhere.† Yeats had also expressed his view on the topic of social classes in this poem. The last lines of the first paragraph â€Å"the best lack all conviction, while the worst / are full of passionate intensity† is begging the question: who are the â€Å"best† that are lacking conviction, and who are the â€Å"worst† that are full of passionate intensity? It is not unfamiliar to us that in discussions of social classes, categories are determined as either black or white. An individual could just either be rich or poor, educated and uneducated, and other determinants of social classes. It appears that Yeats’ view is that the privileged strata of the society is lacking faith and the working-class and medium-income part of the society are full of passionate intensity. This portrayal of Yeats is a common scenario in revolutions. The privileged part of the society seem to lack conviction when radical social change is about to happen. Yeats poem would lead the reader to the irony that the poor is the more active participant in the revolutions. That is despite the poor’s depressed and financially-lacking state. It seems that the common scenario in a revolution is that the rich is just standing in the background. That is just understandable as the rich and the poor would always think differently. As the poem says it â€Å"the best lack all conviction†, they do not want any part of the revolution. A likely reason is that they do not want to take part in the revolution is that because of the nature of the word revolution. Conclusion Yeats’ â€Å"The Second Coming† is certainly a controversial poem. Controversial not just because of it is a hybrid of free-verse and form, but also because of the themes that it generates. Nonetheless, the success of the poem is undeniable. The very evidences for that is its inclusion to many anthologies and publications. But the very testament of the poem’s success is that it continually calls controversy even up to this date. Moreover, the title â€Å"The Second Coming† is just aptly given to the poem. Just like the religious concept of the second coming of Christ, the poem also takes such mysterious quality. The â€Å"first coming† for the poem would be its first publication in 1920.   But as opposed to the religious second coming, the poem seems to reappearing again and again. It seems that the past and the future generations would still appreciate the poem for being one of the greatest poems ever written. nbsp;

Star Charts and Their Many Uses

Star Charts and Their Many Uses The night sky is a fascinating place to explore. Most backyard skygazers begin by stepping out each night and marveling at whatever appears overhead. In time, however, nearly everybody gets the urge to know about what theyre seeing.  Thats where sky charts come in handy.l Theyre like navigational charts, but for exploring the sky. They help observers identify stars and planets in their local skies. A  star chart  or a  stargazing app is one of the most important tools a skygazer can use.  They form the backbone of specialized astronomy apps, desktop programs, and are found in many astronomy books.   Charting the  Sky To get started with star charts, search out a location on  this handy Your sky page. It  lets observers select their location and get a real-time sky chart. The page can create charts for areas around the world, so its also useful for people planning trips who need to know what the skies will contain at their destination. For example, lets say someone lives in or near Fort Lauderdale, Florida. They would scroll down to Fort Lauderdale on the list​ and click on it. It will automatically calculate the sky using the latitude and longitude of Fort Lauderdale as well as its time zone. Then, a sky chart will appear. If the background color is blue, it means the chart is showing the daytime sky.  If its a dark background, then the chart shows the night sky.   The beauty of these charts is that a user can click on any object or area in the chart to get a telescope view, a magnified view of that region. It should show any objects that are in that part of the sky. Labels such as NGC XXXX (where XXXX is a number) or Mx where x is also a number indicate deep-sky objects. Theyre probably galaxies or nebulae or star clusters. M numbers are part of Charles Messiers listing of faint fuzzy objects in the sky, and are worth checking out with a telescope. NGC objects are often galaxies. They may be accessible through a telescope, although many are fairly faint and hard to spot. Astronomers over the ages have collaborated on and created different lists of sky objects. The NGC and Messier lists are the best examples and are the most accessible to casual stargazers as well as advanced amateurs. Unless a stargazer is well-equipped to search out faint, dim, and distant objects, the advanced lists really arent of too much importance to backyard-type skygazers. Its best to stick with the really obvious bright objects for good stargazing results.Some of the better stargazing apps also allow a user to connect to a computerized telescope. The user inputs a target and the charting software directs the telescope to focus on the object. Some users then go on to photograph the object (if theyre so equipped), or simply gaze at it through the eyepiece. There is no limit to what a star chart can help an observer do.   The Ever-Changing Sky Its important to remember that the sky does change night after night. Its a slow change, but eventually, dedicated observers will notice that whats overhead in January is not visible in May or June. Constellations and stars that are high in the sky in the summertime are gone by mid-winter.  This happens throughout the year. Also, the sky seen from the northern hemisphere is not necessarily the same as what is seen from the southern hemisphere. There is some overlap, of course, but in general, stars and constellations visible from the northern parts of the planet arent always going to be seen in the south, and vice-versa.The planets slowly move across the sky as they trace their orbits around the Sun. The more distant planets, such as Jupiter and Saturn, stay around the same spot in the sky for a long time. The closer planets such as Venus, Mercury, and Mars, appear to move more quickly.   Star Charts and Learning the Sky A good star chart shows not only the brightest stars visible at a given location and time but also gives constellation names and will often contain some easy-to-find deep-sky objects. These are usually such things as the Orion Nebula, the Pleiades star cluster, the Milky Way galaxy that we see from inside, star clusters, and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy. Learning to read a chart enables skygazers to know exactly what theyre looking at, and leads them to explore for more celestial goodies.  Ã‚   Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

The Psychosocial Model of Shamanic Trance Assignment

The Psychosocial Model of Shamanic Trance - Assignment Example The shamanic experience fits into the culture's mundis imaginalis, the way the members of a certain culture perceive the world. The shaman's role as healer requires communal recognition and acceptance. When a shaman is in training, there are often spirit helpers and human assistants who facilitate the process of the shamanic journey. The shaman's assistant will help to increase the vividness of the visions summoned in the shamanic trance by encouraging recollection of some things and avoiding others. In a trance state, mental imagery resulting from temporal and occipital lobe activity is perceived as real. The more perceptually real and detailed a vision is, the greater its cognitive and psychological effect will be. Just as keeping a dream diary will tend to sharpen the recall and intensify a person's dreams, the shaman's training has a similar effect. One essential aspect of training is the ability to control visions. The trainee learns to start and stop visions at will. The proces ses are kindled and tuned by the trainer. A shaman who is unable to control the vision process will be perceived as a bad shaman, as lack of control indicates that the spirits are in charge. In societies where oral traditions are observed as the main method of transferring information from one generation to the next, the shaman helps the community to remember the sacral world by recalling and interpreting and re-enacting it. The shaman is active in different areas, including the role of diagnostician and healer. But the role in preserving the tradition of the culture also constitutes a vital contribution to society.  The therapeutic triangle is described by Jane Atkinson in her investigations on the Wana people in Sulawesi, Indonesia. Contrary to Western medicine, where the pathological process and the healing rituals are confined to the patient suffering the symptoms, the shamanistic healing traditions extend treatment to involve the entire community.

Advertisments Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Advertisments - Essay Example Advertising often requires the employment of wit and creativity in the part of the marketer. In order to do these, advertisements are embedded with a subtext, a n underlying which is not stated directly. Looking at the current style of marketers, the subtext is often implied or suggested through the use of symbols, characters, words, images, music, and special effects to complement or even contrast the underlying message. In order to understand how business organizations do this, I will examine the ad for Chanel eyeglasses which featured Eugenia Volodina. The rationale for the choice of the advertisement is fairly simple— my passion for sunglasses and my strong preference for Chanel products. The simple ad which features a blown up image of the beautiful and captivating Eugenia Volodina wearing the new sparkling glasses of Chanel exudes sophistication and elegance. Simple as it is, I find the ad very striking. From its establishment in the early 1910s, Chanel has become an icon of elegance with the brand being synonymous to elegance, wealth, and elitism. Chanel became the ultimate sign of high French class, catering to the needs of elite women. The global popularity of the brand has now made it a top choice for elegant women with very high purchasing power. Thus, the appearance of the ad in Vogue which is recognized as one of the most influential force in shaping fashion and culture is warranted by Chanel’s quest of capturing the elite niche. It should be noted that Vogue caters to the same intellectually sophisticated and fashionable females that Chanel are also targeting. In order to persuade its customers in buying the sunglasses, Chanel employed persuasive methods which can be classified into three modes—pathos, ethos, and logos. Ethos tries to convince buyers by appealing to their character or personality while pathos is geared in engaging their emotions. On the other hand, logos appeals to the reason or

Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching

Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching 2.1 Belief Research In the mid-1970s a new body of research began to emerge that worked to describe teachers thoughts, judgments and decisions as the cognitive processes that shaped their behaviors (Calderhead, 1996, Clark and Peterson, 1986; Dann, 1990). As a consequence of this, a surge of interest in the area of teacher belief systems has appeared (Pajares, 1992). This research â€Å"has helped to identify the nature and complexity of the teachers work , and helped to provide ways of thinking about the processes of change and support† (Calderhead, 1996, p.721). Researchers found that teaching could not be characterized simply as behaviors that were linked to thinking done before and during the activity but rather that the thought process of teaching included a much wider and richer mental context. As Shavelson and Stern (1981, p.479) explained, research on teacher cognition made â€Å"the basic assumption that teachers thoughts, judgments, and decisions guide their teaching behavior†. Kagan (1990, p. 420) noted that teacher cognition is somewhat ambiguous, because researchers invoke the term to refer to different products, including â€Å"teachers interactive thoughts during instruction; thought during lesson planning, implicit beliefs about students, classrooms and learning; reflections about their own teaching performance; automized routines and activities that form their instructional repertoire; and self-awareness of procedures they use to solve classrooms problems†. Currently, there is increasing recognition that the beliefs individuals hold are the best indicators of the decisions they make during the course of everyday life (Bandura, 1986). Pajares (1992, p. 307) argues that the investigation of teachers beliefs should be a focus of educational research and can inform educational practice in ways that prevailing research agendas have not and cannot. Educational researchers trying to understand the nature of teaching and learning in classrooms have usefully exploited this focus on belief systems. The research of Jakubowski and Tobin (1991) suggests that teachers metaphors and beliefs not only influence what teachers do in the classroom, but that changes in these same metaphors and beliefs can result in changes in their practices. A belief can be defined as a representation of the information someone holds about an object, or a â€Å"persons understanding of himself and his environment† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.131). This object can â€Å"be a person, a group of people, an institution, a behavior, a policy, an event, etc., and the associated attribute may be any object, trait, property, quality, characteristic, outcome, or event† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.12). While Rokeach (1972) defined a belief as â€Å"any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does, capable of being preceded by the phrase ‘I believe that† (p.113), Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined a belief system as a hierarchy of beliefs according to the strength about a particular object. Researchers exploring teachers beliefs at the primary and secondary levels have used a number of definitions: â€Å"the highly personal ways in which a teacher understands classrooms, students, the nature of learning, the teachers role in the classroom, and the goals of education† (Kagan, 1990, p. 423); â€Å"psychologically held understandings, premises or propositions about the world that are felt to be true† (Richardson, 1996, p.103); and â€Å"generally refer to suppositions, commitments and ideologies† (Calderhead, 1996, p.715). Beliefs play an important role in many aspects of teaching as well as in life. They are involved in helping individuals make sense of the world, influencing how new information is perceived, and whether it is accepted or rejected. Teachers beliefs are a term usually used to refer to pedagogic beliefs or those beliefs of relevance to an individuals teaching (Borg 2001b). Teacher beliefs have been identified by Kagan (1992a) as tacit, often unconsciously held assumptions about students, about classrooms, and the academic material to be taught. The literature on teacher knowledge and beliefs from the primary and secondary levels has developed a number of terminological differences. Kagan (1990, p.456) highlighted this problem by noting: â€Å"Terms such as teacher cognition, self-reflection, knowledge and belief can be used to refer to different phenomena. Variation in the definition of a term can range from the superficial and idiosyncratic to the profound and theoretical†. The use of these varying terms makes it difficult to investigate in this area of teacher cognition. Pajares (1992) addressed this difficulty: Defining beliefs is at best a game of players choice. They travel in disguise and often under alias-attitudes, values judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principals, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature. (p.309) Defining beliefs is not a very easy task. There is a â€Å"bewildering array of terms† as Clandinin and Connelly (1987, p. 487) put forward including teachers teaching criteria, principles of practice, personal construct/theories/epistemologies, beliefs, perspectives, teachers conceptions, personal knowledge, and practical knowledge. 2.1.1 Belief Research in English Language Teaching The concept of belief, which has been a common feature of research papers in education for the past decade, has recently come into favor in ELT. In the field, various terms have been used to refer to the term ‘belief: pedagogical thoughts (Shavelson and Stern 1981), perspective (Zeichner, Tabachnick, Densmore, 1987), theoretical orientation (Kinzer, 1988), image (Calderhead, 1996), theoretical belief (Kinzer, 1988; Johnson, 1992; Smith 1996). Terms used in language teacher cognition research include theories for practice (Burns, 1996) which refer to the thinking and beliefs which are brought to bear on classroom processes; philosophical orientation and personal pedagogical system (Borg, 1998) which corresponds with stores of beliefs, knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes which shape teachers instructional decisions; maxims (Richards, 1996) to comprise personal working principles which reflect teachers individual philosophies of teaching; images (Johnson, 1994) which means general metaphors for thinking about teaching that represent beliefs about teaching and also act as models of action; conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993) to cover ideas and actions teachers use to organize what they know and to map out what is possible; BAK (Woods, 1996) which includes the concepts beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, In all those studies the core term on which there is focus is â€Å"belief†. Despite the popularity of the term, there is no consensus on meaning yet. The definition set forth by Rokeach (1968) claims that a belief is any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does and knowledge is a component of belief. Rokeach uses the term ‘attitude to refer to the beliefs teachers have about constructs. Richards and Lockhart (1996, p.30) state that â€Å"teachers beliefs systems are founded on the goals and values that teachers hold in relation to the content and process of teaching, and their understanding of the systems in which they work and their roles within it†. These beliefs and values serve as the background to much of teachers decision making action and hence constitute what has been termed the â€Å"culture of teaching†. Richards and Lockhart (1996) summarize those teachers beliefs systems, which are derived from a number of different sources. They are, a) their own experience as language learners, b) their experience of what works best for their learners, c) established practice, d) personality factors, e) educational based or research-based principles, f) principles derived from an approach or method (pp.30-31). Borg (2001b) discusses three aspects of the term belief: The truth element-drawing on research in the philosophy of knowledge, a belief is a mental state which has as its content a proposition that is accepted as true by the individual holding it, although the individual may recognize that alternative beliefs may be held by others. This is one of the key differences between belief and knowledge must actually be true in some external sense. The relationship between belief and behavior most definitions of belief propose that beliefs dispose or guide peoples thinking and action. Conscious versus unconscious beliefs on this point there is disagreement, with some maintaining that consciousness is inherent in the definition of belief, and others allowing for an individual to be conscious of some beliefs and unconscious of others. The field of language teaching has been one of tradition and transition since its beginning hundreds, indeed, by some accounts, thousands of years ago (Kelly, 1969; Howatt, 1984; Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Even though a much newer pursuit than the teaching of languages such as Greek and Latin or Chinese, the teaching of the English language has already been through many transitions in methodology. What are now considered traditional methods were once the innovations of their time, characterized by the attitudes and values of their creators, who recommended that other educators abandon one method and choose another, with unquestioning optimism, as though this latter method were the solution to their classroom concerns (Clarke, 1982). In the past 50 years alone, English language teaching has gone through a whirlwind of transitions in its methodology, from grammar translation to direct method, to audiolingualism, to cognitive code, and a host of variations in each. In recent years, the most substantive transition in English language teaching has taken place through a collection of practices, materials, and beliefs about teaching and learning that are known by many different names, e.g. communicative methodology, communicative language teaching, and the communicative approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Contemporarily, English teaching methodology is going through yet another transition. This transition, frequently referred to as the `post method condition (Kumaravadivelu, 2001), Research in the area of teacher thinking has grown rapidly particularly since the 1980s, with the consequence that the literature is vast and is often focused on very specific aspects of teaching. Nevertheless, the research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). The reasons are: first, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. By the mid 1980s, a rising view of teaching began to highlight the complex ways in which teachers think about their work as being shaped by their prior experiences as students, their ‘personal practical knowledge (Golombek, 1998). More recently the notion of work context has been recognized as central in shaping teachers â€Å"conceptions of their practices† (Freeman, 1993). Language teaching is defined as a dynamic process, which arises out of the meeting and interaction of different sets of principles: different rationalities. In this sense, a rationality is the inner logic which shapes the way in which participants perceive a situation and the goals which they will pursue in this situation (Tudor, 1998). Tudor proposes that to understand language teaching, a first step is to explore the different rationalities which are present in each situation in order to discover the reality the participants involved in. There are four different types of rationalities: those of the students and teachers, socio-cultural rationalities and then the rationality of methodology. While describing teacher rationalities, Tudor (1998) argues that research into subjective needs has led us to appreciate the uniqueness of each learners interaction with their language study. More recently something similar about the teachers has been realized. They, too will perceive and interact with methodology they are implementing in the light of their personality, attitudes, and life experience and the set of perceptions and goals which these give rise to. For this reason there is a need to listen to the teachers voices in understanding classroom practice. There is a need to understand teachers perceptions and the way in which these perceptions influence teachers classroom behaviors. The maxims (Richards, 1996) or the pedagogic principles (Breen et al.2001) teachers use are important in understanding their pedagogical actions. The reality of classroom teaching is how the teachers interpret official curricula or the recommended materials. Teachers are not skilled technicians who dutifully realize a given set of teaching procedures in accordance with the directives of a more or less distant authority. They are active participants in the creation of classroom realities and they do this on the basis of their own attitudes and beliefs, and their personal perceptions of interaction with their teaching situation. All teachers hold beliefs about their work, their students, their subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities. They are individuals with their personal perceptions and goals, which go to shape the rationality which will guide their actions in the classroom and their interaction with the context in which they are operating (Tudor, 1998, p. 324). A major goal of research on teachers thought processes is to increase our understanding of how teachers think and behave in the classroom. The drive for this area of research comes from the assumption that what teachers do is a reflection of what they know and believe, and that teacher knowledge and teacher thinking provide the underlying framework or schema which guides teachers classroom practices (Sutcliffe and Whitfield 1976, Westerman 1991, Flowerdew, Brock Hsia 1992, Kagan 1992a, Richards and Lockhart 1994, Bailey 1996, Woods 1998, Borg 1998, Richards 1998). Therefore, in order to understand teaching, we must understand how thoughts get carried into actions (Clark and Yinger 1977, Shavelson and Stern 1981, Clark and Peterson 1986, Johnson 1992, Nunan 1992). Pajares (1992) reviewed research on teacher beliefs and argued that ‘‘teachers beliefs can and should become an important focus of educational inquiry (p. 307). He then sketched numerous facets of beliefs and acknowledged that a variety of conceptions of educational beliefs appear in the literature. Citing Nespors (1987) influential work, he suggested that ‘‘beliefs are far more influential than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems and are stronger predictors of behavior (p. 311). Studies on teacher beliefs have slowly gained prominence, especially with regard to teacher change issues. Guskey (1986), for example, examined 52 teachers who participated in teacher development programs and concluded that change in teachers beliefs ‘‘is likely to take place only after changes in student learning outcomes are evidenced (p. 7). In contrast, Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, and Lloyd (1991) found that change in beliefs preceded change in practices. The current view is that relationships between beliefs and practices are interactive and ongoing (Fullan, 1991; Richardson, 1996). Richardson (1996) even states that ‘‘In most current conceptions, the perceived relationship between beliefs and actions is interactive. Beliefs are thought to drive actions; however, experiences and reflection on action may lead to changes in and/or additions to beliefs (p. 104). Pajares (1992) promoted 16 ‘‘fundamental assumptions that may reasonably be made when initiating a study of teachers education beliefs (1992, p. 324). These assumptions include among others, the notions that (a) beliefs are formed early and tend to self perpetuate, persevering even against contradictions caused by reason, time, schooling, or experience; (b) individuals develop a belief system that houses all the beliefs acquired through the process of cultural transmission; (c) beliefs are instrumental in defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpret, plan, and make decisions regarding such tasks; (d) individuals beliefs strongly affect their behavior; and (e) knowledge and beliefs are inextricably intertwined (for complete discussion of all 16 assumptions, see Pajares, 1992, pp. 324-326). 2.2 Teacher Knowledge Research Meanwhile doubts arose also from the scientific community about a conception of professionalism that asked professionals (such as teachers) to just apply the theories and insights provided by others. Schà ¶n (1983, 1987) analyzed the work of various groups of professionals and concluded that they applied a certain amount of theoretical knowledge in their work, but that their behavior was not at all ‘‘rule governed and that they had no straightforward way to determine which behavior was adequate in specific circumstances. Schà ¶n contrasted this principle of ‘‘technical rationality to the principle of ‘‘reflection-in-action, which pertained to the thinking of the professional during professional activity and implied a continuing dialogue with the permanently changing situation. This situation does not present itself as a well-defined problem situation. On the contrary, defining the problem is itself one of the most difficult tasks of the professio nal. This recognition of the centrality of the teacher and the teachers knowledge and beliefs regarding each educational process, including educational innovations, is relatively recent (Calderhead, 1996). Birman, Desimone, Porter, Garet (2000), for example, searched for key features of effective professional development and, based on their research, reported that professional development should focus on deepening teacher knowledge in order to foster teacher learning and changes in practice. Similarly, Hawley and Valli (1999) considered the expansion and elaboration of teachers professional knowledge base as essential for their professional development. In the literature about teacher knowledge, various labels have been used, each indicating a relevant aspect of teacher knowledge. The labels illustrate mainly which aspect is considered the most important by the respective authors. Together, these labels give an overview of the way in which teacher knowledge has been studied to date. The most commonly used labels are ‘‘personal knowledge (Conelly and Clandinin, 1985; Elbaz, 1991), indicating that this knowledge is unique; ‘‘the wisdom of practice (Schwab, 1971), and in more recent publications, ‘‘professional craft knowledge (e.g., Brown and McIntyre, 1993; Shimahara, 1998), referring to a specific component of knowledge that is mainly the product of the teachers practical experience; ‘‘action oriented knowledge, indicating that this knowledge is for immediate use in teaching practice (Carter, 1990); ‘‘content and context related knowledge (Cochran, DeRuiter, King, 1993; Va n Driel, Verloop, De Vos, 1998); knowledge that is to a great extent ‘tacit (Calderhead and Robson, 1991); and knowledge that is based on reflection on experiences (Grimmet and MacKinnon, 1992). It is important to realize that in the label ‘teacher knowledge, the concept ‘knowledge is used as an overarching, inclusive concept, summarizing a large variety of cognitions, from conscious and well-balanced opinions to unconscious and unreflected intuitions. This is related to the fact that, in the mind of the teacher, components of knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, and intuitions are inextricably intertwined. As Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991) noted, the term ‘knowledge is mostly used to encompass ‘‘all that a person knows or believes to be true, whether or not it is verified as true in some sort of objective or external way (p. 317). This is particularly relevant with respect to research on teacher knowledge. In investigating teacher knowledge, the main focus of attention is on the complex totality of cognitions, the ways this develops, and the way this interacts with teacher behavior in the classroom. Following Pajares (1992), knowledge and beliefs are seen as inseparable, although beliefs are seen roughly as referring to personal values, attitudes, and ideologies, and knowledge to a teachers more factual propositions (Meijer, Verloop, Beijaard, 2001). 2.2.1 Teachers Knowledge and Beliefs About Teaching In his extensive review of the literature, Calderhead (1996) found that many different kinds of knowledge have been described as underpinning effective teaching. The main forms are those related to the subject being taught, to teaching methods, and to the ways in which students develop and learn. The extent to which teachers have conscious access to this knowledge is, however, far from clear. Some researchers argue that much of this knowledge is implicit or tacit, derived from experience rather than from any conceptual framework. The research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly work concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs, which reflect their experiences, is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). First, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. Pajares (1992) attempts to clarify the confusion with the distinction between knowledge and belief. However, as many researchers have found, it is not so much that knowledge differs from beliefs, but that beliefs themselves constitute a form of knowledge. In his attempts to characterize beliefs, Nespor (1987) provides some distinctions between beliefs and knowledge. He singles out four features of the construct previously identified by Abelson (1979) and considers them in relation to teachers: Existential presumptions or personal truths are generally unaffected by persuasion and are perceived by the teacher as being beyond his/her control or influence. Alternativity is a feature of beliefs that would include situations such as when teachers attempt to establish an instructional format of which they have no direct experience but which they might consider ideal. Belief systems can be said to rely much more heavily on affective and evaluative components than knowledge systems. Teachers values and feelings often affect what and how they teach and may conflict with their knowledge. Belief systems are composed mainly of episodically stored material which is derived from personal experience, episodes or events which continue to influence the comprehension of events at a later time. Whereas beliefs reside in episodic memory, knowledge is semantically stored. A further distinction between beliefs and knowledge, notes Nespor (1987, p.313), is that, while knowledge often changes, beliefs are static. As well, whereas knowledge can be evaluated or judged, such is not the case with beliefs as there is usually a lack of consensus about how they are to be evaluated. Furthermore, there do not appear to be any clear rules for determining the relevance of beliefs to real world events. While there is no doubt other distinctions can be made between the two constructs, a better understanding may be gained by exploring the relationship between the two and by considering beliefs as a form of knowledge. This form of knowledge could be referred to as personal knowledge. Kagan (1992a) refers to beliefs as a particularly provocative form of personal knowledge and argues that most of a teachers professional knowledge can be regarded more accurately as belief. According to Kagan, this knowledge grows richer and more coherent as a teachers experience in classrooms grows and thus forms a highly personalized pedagogy or belief system that actually constrains the teachers perception, judgment, and behavior. In terms of beliefs being personal knowledge, Kagan explains: A teachers knowledge of his or her profession is situated in three important ways: in context (it is related to specific groups of students), in content (it is related to particular academic material to be taught), and in person (it is embedded within the teachers unique belief system) (p.74). Like Clark (1988) who equates ‘implicit theories with beliefs, Nespor (1987) explains how beliefs become personal pedagogies or theories to guide teachers practices: Teachers beliefs play a major role in defining teaching tasks and organizing the knowledge and information relevant to those tasks. But why should this be so? Why wouldnt research-based knowledge or academic theory serve this purpose just as well? The answer suggested here is that the contexts and environments within which teachers work, and many of the problems they encounter, are ill-defined and deeply entangled, and that beliefs are peculiarly suited for making sense of such contexts. (p.324) Munby (1982) also equates implicit theories with teachers beliefs. Clark and Peterson (1986) in their review of the literature on teachers thought processes, argue that teachers theories and beliefs represent a rich store of knowledge. Teachers make sense of their complex world and respond to it by forming a complex system of personal and professional knowledge and theories which, as Kagan (1992a) describes, are often tacit and unconsciously held assumptions about students, classrooms and the material to be taught. 2.2.1.1 Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge Throughout this study the term BAK is used as an inclusive term to refer to beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge. Therefore, the following section describes the rationale behind using this term. In the discussion so far, approaches which divide aspects of teacher cognition were examined in separate categories. A more recent strand of research, however, challenges the categorical distinctions outlined above. Woods (1996) suggests that these dichotomies do not accurately reflect the relationship between Teachers beliefs, assumptions and knowledge and their practices in the classroom. In order to take appropriate action, people need to understand; and to understand they need knowledge about the world and specifically about the situation they are in (Woods, 1996, p. 59). Woods (1996) develops a multidimensional cycle of planning and decision making within teaching. He describes three phases of assessment, planning and implementation which operate recursively to inform different hierarchical levels of the teaching process going from the most local level of discrete events in the lesson plan to the most global level of whole course planning (p. 139). Woodss analysis of interview data suggests that knowledge structures and belief systems ‘‘are not composed of independent elements, but [are] rather structured, with certain aspects implying or presupposing others (p. 200). Woods proposes a model to signify the evolving system of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge (BAK) that recursively informs or is informed by the context of teaching: the BAK was part of the perceiving and organizing of the decisions. Woods has demonstrated that language teachers create and maintain background networks of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge which constitute a valid theory of teaching and learning. These background theoretical networks are grounded in every level of routine classroom practice in much the same way that educational theory is grounded in the systematic collection of empirical data. This construct (BAK) is supported by MacDonaldo, Badger and White (2001). They also suggest that while there is some support for a categorical di stinction between theory and practice in language education, it is suggested that the beliefs, assumptions and knowledge of teachers are in fact inextricably bound up with what goes on in the classroom. 2.3 Research on the Relationship between Teachers Beliefs, Instructional decisions, and Practices Beliefs are manifested in teaching practices because teachers instruction tends to reflect their beliefs. Pajares (1992) and Richardson (1996) investigated the relationship between teachers beliefs and their teaching practices, concluding that teachers beliefs were reflected in their actions, decisions and classroom practices. Kagan (1992a) also supported Pajares and Richardsons claim that teachers beliefs served as a vital role in influencing the nature of the instruction. In her study, Johnson (1992) examined the relationship between ESL teachers defined, theoretical beliefs about second language learning as well as teaching and instructional practices during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English. Three tasks, such as an ideal instructional protocol, a lesson plan analysis, and a beliefs inventory were used to determine how much ESL teachers beliefs were reflected in skill-based, rule-based, and function-based orientations. The findings in Johnsons study showed that ESL teachers defined beliefs were congruent with their theoretical orientations, and teachers with different theoretical orientations gave quite different instruction for ESL students. Therefore, her study concluded that overall, teachers had different teaching approaches, selections of teaching materials, and images of teachers and students according to their beliefs about learning and teaching. For example, a teacher whose dominant theoretical orientation was function-b ased focused generally on comprehending the main idea, following a pattern of pre-reading as well as post-reading questions, and discussion as usual reading activities in her instruction. In addition, Smiths (1996) study explored the relationship between nine experienced ESL teachers beliefs and their decision-making in classroom practices. The result of her study showed that teachers articulated theoretical beliefs were consistent with their instructional planning and decisions. For example, those teachers who believed in communication of meaning as a primary goal in learning a language designed and implemented tasks which promoted student-interaction and meaningful communication, such as small-group or pair activities. Golombek (1998) examined how two in-service ESL teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice through a description of a tension each teacher faced in the classroom. The teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice by serving as a kind of interpretive framework through which they made sense of their classrooms as they recounted their experiences and made this knowledge explicit. The results of this study suggested that L2 teacher educators should recognize that L2 teachers personal practical knowledge is embodied in individuals. For this reason, personal practical knowledge is important to acknowledge in L2 teacher education practice and research. Similarly, in his article Borg (2001a) presents two cases which illustrate the extent to which teachers perceptions of their knowledge about grammar emerged as one of the factors which influences teachers instructional decisions in teaching grammar. The two case studies suggested clearly that teachers self-perceptions of their knowledge about grammar had an impact on their work. Two conclusions emergi Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge (BAK) Research in Teaching 2.1 Belief Research In the mid-1970s a new body of research began to emerge that worked to describe teachers thoughts, judgments and decisions as the cognitive processes that shaped their behaviors (Calderhead, 1996, Clark and Peterson, 1986; Dann, 1990). As a consequence of this, a surge of interest in the area of teacher belief systems has appeared (Pajares, 1992). This research â€Å"has helped to identify the nature and complexity of the teachers work , and helped to provide ways of thinking about the processes of change and support† (Calderhead, 1996, p.721). Researchers found that teaching could not be characterized simply as behaviors that were linked to thinking done before and during the activity but rather that the thought process of teaching included a much wider and richer mental context. As Shavelson and Stern (1981, p.479) explained, research on teacher cognition made â€Å"the basic assumption that teachers thoughts, judgments, and decisions guide their teaching behavior†. Kagan (1990, p. 420) noted that teacher cognition is somewhat ambiguous, because researchers invoke the term to refer to different products, including â€Å"teachers interactive thoughts during instruction; thought during lesson planning, implicit beliefs about students, classrooms and learning; reflections about their own teaching performance; automized routines and activities that form their instructional repertoire; and self-awareness of procedures they use to solve classrooms problems†. Currently, there is increasing recognition that the beliefs individuals hold are the best indicators of the decisions they make during the course of everyday life (Bandura, 1986). Pajares (1992, p. 307) argues that the investigation of teachers beliefs should be a focus of educational research and can inform educational practice in ways that prevailing research agendas have not and cannot. Educational researchers trying to understand the nature of teaching and learning in classrooms have usefully exploited this focus on belief systems. The research of Jakubowski and Tobin (1991) suggests that teachers metaphors and beliefs not only influence what teachers do in the classroom, but that changes in these same metaphors and beliefs can result in changes in their practices. A belief can be defined as a representation of the information someone holds about an object, or a â€Å"persons understanding of himself and his environment† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.131). This object can â€Å"be a person, a group of people, an institution, a behavior, a policy, an event, etc., and the associated attribute may be any object, trait, property, quality, characteristic, outcome, or event† (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, p.12). While Rokeach (1972) defined a belief as â€Å"any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does, capable of being preceded by the phrase ‘I believe that† (p.113), Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) defined a belief system as a hierarchy of beliefs according to the strength about a particular object. Researchers exploring teachers beliefs at the primary and secondary levels have used a number of definitions: â€Å"the highly personal ways in which a teacher understands classrooms, students, the nature of learning, the teachers role in the classroom, and the goals of education† (Kagan, 1990, p. 423); â€Å"psychologically held understandings, premises or propositions about the world that are felt to be true† (Richardson, 1996, p.103); and â€Å"generally refer to suppositions, commitments and ideologies† (Calderhead, 1996, p.715). Beliefs play an important role in many aspects of teaching as well as in life. They are involved in helping individuals make sense of the world, influencing how new information is perceived, and whether it is accepted or rejected. Teachers beliefs are a term usually used to refer to pedagogic beliefs or those beliefs of relevance to an individuals teaching (Borg 2001b). Teacher beliefs have been identified by Kagan (1992a) as tacit, often unconsciously held assumptions about students, about classrooms, and the academic material to be taught. The literature on teacher knowledge and beliefs from the primary and secondary levels has developed a number of terminological differences. Kagan (1990, p.456) highlighted this problem by noting: â€Å"Terms such as teacher cognition, self-reflection, knowledge and belief can be used to refer to different phenomena. Variation in the definition of a term can range from the superficial and idiosyncratic to the profound and theoretical†. The use of these varying terms makes it difficult to investigate in this area of teacher cognition. Pajares (1992) addressed this difficulty: Defining beliefs is at best a game of players choice. They travel in disguise and often under alias-attitudes, values judgments, axioms, opinions, ideology, perceptions, conceptual systems, preconceptions, dispositions, implicit theories, explicit theories, personal theories, internal mental processes, action strategies, rules of practice, practical principals, perspectives, repertories of understanding, and social strategy, to name but a few that can be found in the literature. (p.309) Defining beliefs is not a very easy task. There is a â€Å"bewildering array of terms† as Clandinin and Connelly (1987, p. 487) put forward including teachers teaching criteria, principles of practice, personal construct/theories/epistemologies, beliefs, perspectives, teachers conceptions, personal knowledge, and practical knowledge. 2.1.1 Belief Research in English Language Teaching The concept of belief, which has been a common feature of research papers in education for the past decade, has recently come into favor in ELT. In the field, various terms have been used to refer to the term ‘belief: pedagogical thoughts (Shavelson and Stern 1981), perspective (Zeichner, Tabachnick, Densmore, 1987), theoretical orientation (Kinzer, 1988), image (Calderhead, 1996), theoretical belief (Kinzer, 1988; Johnson, 1992; Smith 1996). Terms used in language teacher cognition research include theories for practice (Burns, 1996) which refer to the thinking and beliefs which are brought to bear on classroom processes; philosophical orientation and personal pedagogical system (Borg, 1998) which corresponds with stores of beliefs, knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes which shape teachers instructional decisions; maxims (Richards, 1996) to comprise personal working principles which reflect teachers individual philosophies of teaching; images (Johnson, 1994) which means general metaphors for thinking about teaching that represent beliefs about teaching and also act as models of action; conceptions of practice (Freeman, 1993) to cover ideas and actions teachers use to organize what they know and to map out what is possible; BAK (Woods, 1996) which includes the concepts beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge, In all those studies the core term on which there is focus is â€Å"belief†. Despite the popularity of the term, there is no consensus on meaning yet. The definition set forth by Rokeach (1968) claims that a belief is any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does and knowledge is a component of belief. Rokeach uses the term ‘attitude to refer to the beliefs teachers have about constructs. Richards and Lockhart (1996, p.30) state that â€Å"teachers beliefs systems are founded on the goals and values that teachers hold in relation to the content and process of teaching, and their understanding of the systems in which they work and their roles within it†. These beliefs and values serve as the background to much of teachers decision making action and hence constitute what has been termed the â€Å"culture of teaching†. Richards and Lockhart (1996) summarize those teachers beliefs systems, which are derived from a number of different sources. They are, a) their own experience as language learners, b) their experience of what works best for their learners, c) established practice, d) personality factors, e) educational based or research-based principles, f) principles derived from an approach or method (pp.30-31). Borg (2001b) discusses three aspects of the term belief: The truth element-drawing on research in the philosophy of knowledge, a belief is a mental state which has as its content a proposition that is accepted as true by the individual holding it, although the individual may recognize that alternative beliefs may be held by others. This is one of the key differences between belief and knowledge must actually be true in some external sense. The relationship between belief and behavior most definitions of belief propose that beliefs dispose or guide peoples thinking and action. Conscious versus unconscious beliefs on this point there is disagreement, with some maintaining that consciousness is inherent in the definition of belief, and others allowing for an individual to be conscious of some beliefs and unconscious of others. The field of language teaching has been one of tradition and transition since its beginning hundreds, indeed, by some accounts, thousands of years ago (Kelly, 1969; Howatt, 1984; Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Even though a much newer pursuit than the teaching of languages such as Greek and Latin or Chinese, the teaching of the English language has already been through many transitions in methodology. What are now considered traditional methods were once the innovations of their time, characterized by the attitudes and values of their creators, who recommended that other educators abandon one method and choose another, with unquestioning optimism, as though this latter method were the solution to their classroom concerns (Clarke, 1982). In the past 50 years alone, English language teaching has gone through a whirlwind of transitions in its methodology, from grammar translation to direct method, to audiolingualism, to cognitive code, and a host of variations in each. In recent years, the most substantive transition in English language teaching has taken place through a collection of practices, materials, and beliefs about teaching and learning that are known by many different names, e.g. communicative methodology, communicative language teaching, and the communicative approach (Richards and Rodgers, 1986). Contemporarily, English teaching methodology is going through yet another transition. This transition, frequently referred to as the `post method condition (Kumaravadivelu, 2001), Research in the area of teacher thinking has grown rapidly particularly since the 1980s, with the consequence that the literature is vast and is often focused on very specific aspects of teaching. Nevertheless, the research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). The reasons are: first, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. By the mid 1980s, a rising view of teaching began to highlight the complex ways in which teachers think about their work as being shaped by their prior experiences as students, their ‘personal practical knowledge (Golombek, 1998). More recently the notion of work context has been recognized as central in shaping teachers â€Å"conceptions of their practices† (Freeman, 1993). Language teaching is defined as a dynamic process, which arises out of the meeting and interaction of different sets of principles: different rationalities. In this sense, a rationality is the inner logic which shapes the way in which participants perceive a situation and the goals which they will pursue in this situation (Tudor, 1998). Tudor proposes that to understand language teaching, a first step is to explore the different rationalities which are present in each situation in order to discover the reality the participants involved in. There are four different types of rationalities: those of the students and teachers, socio-cultural rationalities and then the rationality of methodology. While describing teacher rationalities, Tudor (1998) argues that research into subjective needs has led us to appreciate the uniqueness of each learners interaction with their language study. More recently something similar about the teachers has been realized. They, too will perceive and interact with methodology they are implementing in the light of their personality, attitudes, and life experience and the set of perceptions and goals which these give rise to. For this reason there is a need to listen to the teachers voices in understanding classroom practice. There is a need to understand teachers perceptions and the way in which these perceptions influence teachers classroom behaviors. The maxims (Richards, 1996) or the pedagogic principles (Breen et al.2001) teachers use are important in understanding their pedagogical actions. The reality of classroom teaching is how the teachers interpret official curricula or the recommended materials. Teachers are not skilled technicians who dutifully realize a given set of teaching procedures in accordance with the directives of a more or less distant authority. They are active participants in the creation of classroom realities and they do this on the basis of their own attitudes and beliefs, and their personal perceptions of interaction with their teaching situation. All teachers hold beliefs about their work, their students, their subject matter, and their roles and responsibilities. They are individuals with their personal perceptions and goals, which go to shape the rationality which will guide their actions in the classroom and their interaction with the context in which they are operating (Tudor, 1998, p. 324). A major goal of research on teachers thought processes is to increase our understanding of how teachers think and behave in the classroom. The drive for this area of research comes from the assumption that what teachers do is a reflection of what they know and believe, and that teacher knowledge and teacher thinking provide the underlying framework or schema which guides teachers classroom practices (Sutcliffe and Whitfield 1976, Westerman 1991, Flowerdew, Brock Hsia 1992, Kagan 1992a, Richards and Lockhart 1994, Bailey 1996, Woods 1998, Borg 1998, Richards 1998). Therefore, in order to understand teaching, we must understand how thoughts get carried into actions (Clark and Yinger 1977, Shavelson and Stern 1981, Clark and Peterson 1986, Johnson 1992, Nunan 1992). Pajares (1992) reviewed research on teacher beliefs and argued that ‘‘teachers beliefs can and should become an important focus of educational inquiry (p. 307). He then sketched numerous facets of beliefs and acknowledged that a variety of conceptions of educational beliefs appear in the literature. Citing Nespors (1987) influential work, he suggested that ‘‘beliefs are far more influential than knowledge in determining how individuals organize and define tasks and problems and are stronger predictors of behavior (p. 311). Studies on teacher beliefs have slowly gained prominence, especially with regard to teacher change issues. Guskey (1986), for example, examined 52 teachers who participated in teacher development programs and concluded that change in teachers beliefs ‘‘is likely to take place only after changes in student learning outcomes are evidenced (p. 7). In contrast, Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, and Lloyd (1991) found that change in beliefs preceded change in practices. The current view is that relationships between beliefs and practices are interactive and ongoing (Fullan, 1991; Richardson, 1996). Richardson (1996) even states that ‘‘In most current conceptions, the perceived relationship between beliefs and actions is interactive. Beliefs are thought to drive actions; however, experiences and reflection on action may lead to changes in and/or additions to beliefs (p. 104). Pajares (1992) promoted 16 ‘‘fundamental assumptions that may reasonably be made when initiating a study of teachers education beliefs (1992, p. 324). These assumptions include among others, the notions that (a) beliefs are formed early and tend to self perpetuate, persevering even against contradictions caused by reason, time, schooling, or experience; (b) individuals develop a belief system that houses all the beliefs acquired through the process of cultural transmission; (c) beliefs are instrumental in defining tasks and selecting the cognitive tools with which to interpret, plan, and make decisions regarding such tasks; (d) individuals beliefs strongly affect their behavior; and (e) knowledge and beliefs are inextricably intertwined (for complete discussion of all 16 assumptions, see Pajares, 1992, pp. 324-326). 2.2 Teacher Knowledge Research Meanwhile doubts arose also from the scientific community about a conception of professionalism that asked professionals (such as teachers) to just apply the theories and insights provided by others. Schà ¶n (1983, 1987) analyzed the work of various groups of professionals and concluded that they applied a certain amount of theoretical knowledge in their work, but that their behavior was not at all ‘‘rule governed and that they had no straightforward way to determine which behavior was adequate in specific circumstances. Schà ¶n contrasted this principle of ‘‘technical rationality to the principle of ‘‘reflection-in-action, which pertained to the thinking of the professional during professional activity and implied a continuing dialogue with the permanently changing situation. This situation does not present itself as a well-defined problem situation. On the contrary, defining the problem is itself one of the most difficult tasks of the professio nal. This recognition of the centrality of the teacher and the teachers knowledge and beliefs regarding each educational process, including educational innovations, is relatively recent (Calderhead, 1996). Birman, Desimone, Porter, Garet (2000), for example, searched for key features of effective professional development and, based on their research, reported that professional development should focus on deepening teacher knowledge in order to foster teacher learning and changes in practice. Similarly, Hawley and Valli (1999) considered the expansion and elaboration of teachers professional knowledge base as essential for their professional development. In the literature about teacher knowledge, various labels have been used, each indicating a relevant aspect of teacher knowledge. The labels illustrate mainly which aspect is considered the most important by the respective authors. Together, these labels give an overview of the way in which teacher knowledge has been studied to date. The most commonly used labels are ‘‘personal knowledge (Conelly and Clandinin, 1985; Elbaz, 1991), indicating that this knowledge is unique; ‘‘the wisdom of practice (Schwab, 1971), and in more recent publications, ‘‘professional craft knowledge (e.g., Brown and McIntyre, 1993; Shimahara, 1998), referring to a specific component of knowledge that is mainly the product of the teachers practical experience; ‘‘action oriented knowledge, indicating that this knowledge is for immediate use in teaching practice (Carter, 1990); ‘‘content and context related knowledge (Cochran, DeRuiter, King, 1993; Va n Driel, Verloop, De Vos, 1998); knowledge that is to a great extent ‘tacit (Calderhead and Robson, 1991); and knowledge that is based on reflection on experiences (Grimmet and MacKinnon, 1992). It is important to realize that in the label ‘teacher knowledge, the concept ‘knowledge is used as an overarching, inclusive concept, summarizing a large variety of cognitions, from conscious and well-balanced opinions to unconscious and unreflected intuitions. This is related to the fact that, in the mind of the teacher, components of knowledge, beliefs, conceptions, and intuitions are inextricably intertwined. As Alexander, Schallert, and Hare (1991) noted, the term ‘knowledge is mostly used to encompass ‘‘all that a person knows or believes to be true, whether or not it is verified as true in some sort of objective or external way (p. 317). This is particularly relevant with respect to research on teacher knowledge. In investigating teacher knowledge, the main focus of attention is on the complex totality of cognitions, the ways this develops, and the way this interacts with teacher behavior in the classroom. Following Pajares (1992), knowledge and beliefs are seen as inseparable, although beliefs are seen roughly as referring to personal values, attitudes, and ideologies, and knowledge to a teachers more factual propositions (Meijer, Verloop, Beijaard, 2001). 2.2.1 Teachers Knowledge and Beliefs About Teaching In his extensive review of the literature, Calderhead (1996) found that many different kinds of knowledge have been described as underpinning effective teaching. The main forms are those related to the subject being taught, to teaching methods, and to the ways in which students develop and learn. The extent to which teachers have conscious access to this knowledge is, however, far from clear. Some researchers argue that much of this knowledge is implicit or tacit, derived from experience rather than from any conceptual framework. The research concerned with teachers implicit theories of teaching and learning, particularly work concerned with epistemological and pedagogical beliefs, which reflect their experiences, is of considerable relevance to research in language teaching (Kagan, 1992a; Pajares 1992). First, educational beliefs have shown to influence teaching practice (Kagan 1992a) and learning outcomes. Second, methods used to investigate relationship between beliefs and/or conceptions and teaching practice and the ways of analyzing data, are of interest. Pajares (1992) attempts to clarify the confusion with the distinction between knowledge and belief. However, as many researchers have found, it is not so much that knowledge differs from beliefs, but that beliefs themselves constitute a form of knowledge. In his attempts to characterize beliefs, Nespor (1987) provides some distinctions between beliefs and knowledge. He singles out four features of the construct previously identified by Abelson (1979) and considers them in relation to teachers: Existential presumptions or personal truths are generally unaffected by persuasion and are perceived by the teacher as being beyond his/her control or influence. Alternativity is a feature of beliefs that would include situations such as when teachers attempt to establish an instructional format of which they have no direct experience but which they might consider ideal. Belief systems can be said to rely much more heavily on affective and evaluative components than knowledge systems. Teachers values and feelings often affect what and how they teach and may conflict with their knowledge. Belief systems are composed mainly of episodically stored material which is derived from personal experience, episodes or events which continue to influence the comprehension of events at a later time. Whereas beliefs reside in episodic memory, knowledge is semantically stored. A further distinction between beliefs and knowledge, notes Nespor (1987, p.313), is that, while knowledge often changes, beliefs are static. As well, whereas knowledge can be evaluated or judged, such is not the case with beliefs as there is usually a lack of consensus about how they are to be evaluated. Furthermore, there do not appear to be any clear rules for determining the relevance of beliefs to real world events. While there is no doubt other distinctions can be made between the two constructs, a better understanding may be gained by exploring the relationship between the two and by considering beliefs as a form of knowledge. This form of knowledge could be referred to as personal knowledge. Kagan (1992a) refers to beliefs as a particularly provocative form of personal knowledge and argues that most of a teachers professional knowledge can be regarded more accurately as belief. According to Kagan, this knowledge grows richer and more coherent as a teachers experience in classrooms grows and thus forms a highly personalized pedagogy or belief system that actually constrains the teachers perception, judgment, and behavior. In terms of beliefs being personal knowledge, Kagan explains: A teachers knowledge of his or her profession is situated in three important ways: in context (it is related to specific groups of students), in content (it is related to particular academic material to be taught), and in person (it is embedded within the teachers unique belief system) (p.74). Like Clark (1988) who equates ‘implicit theories with beliefs, Nespor (1987) explains how beliefs become personal pedagogies or theories to guide teachers practices: Teachers beliefs play a major role in defining teaching tasks and organizing the knowledge and information relevant to those tasks. But why should this be so? Why wouldnt research-based knowledge or academic theory serve this purpose just as well? The answer suggested here is that the contexts and environments within which teachers work, and many of the problems they encounter, are ill-defined and deeply entangled, and that beliefs are peculiarly suited for making sense of such contexts. (p.324) Munby (1982) also equates implicit theories with teachers beliefs. Clark and Peterson (1986) in their review of the literature on teachers thought processes, argue that teachers theories and beliefs represent a rich store of knowledge. Teachers make sense of their complex world and respond to it by forming a complex system of personal and professional knowledge and theories which, as Kagan (1992a) describes, are often tacit and unconsciously held assumptions about students, classrooms and the material to be taught. 2.2.1.1 Beliefs, Assumptions, Knowledge Throughout this study the term BAK is used as an inclusive term to refer to beliefs, assumptions, and knowledge. Therefore, the following section describes the rationale behind using this term. In the discussion so far, approaches which divide aspects of teacher cognition were examined in separate categories. A more recent strand of research, however, challenges the categorical distinctions outlined above. Woods (1996) suggests that these dichotomies do not accurately reflect the relationship between Teachers beliefs, assumptions and knowledge and their practices in the classroom. In order to take appropriate action, people need to understand; and to understand they need knowledge about the world and specifically about the situation they are in (Woods, 1996, p. 59). Woods (1996) develops a multidimensional cycle of planning and decision making within teaching. He describes three phases of assessment, planning and implementation which operate recursively to inform different hierarchical levels of the teaching process going from the most local level of discrete events in the lesson plan to the most global level of whole course planning (p. 139). Woodss analysis of interview data suggests that knowledge structures and belief systems ‘‘are not composed of independent elements, but [are] rather structured, with certain aspects implying or presupposing others (p. 200). Woods proposes a model to signify the evolving system of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge (BAK) that recursively informs or is informed by the context of teaching: the BAK was part of the perceiving and organizing of the decisions. Woods has demonstrated that language teachers create and maintain background networks of beliefs, assumptions and knowledge which constitute a valid theory of teaching and learning. These background theoretical networks are grounded in every level of routine classroom practice in much the same way that educational theory is grounded in the systematic collection of empirical data. This construct (BAK) is supported by MacDonaldo, Badger and White (2001). They also suggest that while there is some support for a categorical di stinction between theory and practice in language education, it is suggested that the beliefs, assumptions and knowledge of teachers are in fact inextricably bound up with what goes on in the classroom. 2.3 Research on the Relationship between Teachers Beliefs, Instructional decisions, and Practices Beliefs are manifested in teaching practices because teachers instruction tends to reflect their beliefs. Pajares (1992) and Richardson (1996) investigated the relationship between teachers beliefs and their teaching practices, concluding that teachers beliefs were reflected in their actions, decisions and classroom practices. Kagan (1992a) also supported Pajares and Richardsons claim that teachers beliefs served as a vital role in influencing the nature of the instruction. In her study, Johnson (1992) examined the relationship between ESL teachers defined, theoretical beliefs about second language learning as well as teaching and instructional practices during literacy instruction for non-native speakers of English. Three tasks, such as an ideal instructional protocol, a lesson plan analysis, and a beliefs inventory were used to determine how much ESL teachers beliefs were reflected in skill-based, rule-based, and function-based orientations. The findings in Johnsons study showed that ESL teachers defined beliefs were congruent with their theoretical orientations, and teachers with different theoretical orientations gave quite different instruction for ESL students. Therefore, her study concluded that overall, teachers had different teaching approaches, selections of teaching materials, and images of teachers and students according to their beliefs about learning and teaching. For example, a teacher whose dominant theoretical orientation was function-b ased focused generally on comprehending the main idea, following a pattern of pre-reading as well as post-reading questions, and discussion as usual reading activities in her instruction. In addition, Smiths (1996) study explored the relationship between nine experienced ESL teachers beliefs and their decision-making in classroom practices. The result of her study showed that teachers articulated theoretical beliefs were consistent with their instructional planning and decisions. For example, those teachers who believed in communication of meaning as a primary goal in learning a language designed and implemented tasks which promoted student-interaction and meaningful communication, such as small-group or pair activities. Golombek (1998) examined how two in-service ESL teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice through a description of a tension each teacher faced in the classroom. The teachers personal practical knowledge informed their practice by serving as a kind of interpretive framework through which they made sense of their classrooms as they recounted their experiences and made this knowledge explicit. The results of this study suggested that L2 teacher educators should recognize that L2 teachers personal practical knowledge is embodied in individuals. For this reason, personal practical knowledge is important to acknowledge in L2 teacher education practice and research. Similarly, in his article Borg (2001a) presents two cases which illustrate the extent to which teachers perceptions of their knowledge about grammar emerged as one of the factors which influences teachers instructional decisions in teaching grammar. The two case studies suggested clearly that teachers self-perceptions of their knowledge about grammar had an impact on their work. Two conclusions emergi